Is Bipolar Disorder Hereditary? What 158,036 Cases and 298 Genetic Loci Actually Tell You

Is Bipolar Disorder Hereditary? What 158,036 Cases and 298 Genetic Loci Actually Tell You

This article is for educational purposes only. It is not a substitute for advice from a licensed physician, board-certified medical geneticist, or board-certified genetic counselor. For any decisions about testing, treatment, or care, consult a qualified clinician. In emergencies, call 911.

Bottom line: Bipolar disorder runs strongly in families. A 2025 Nature study of 158,036 people with the condition found 298 genetic sites linked to it. Yet no single gene causes it, and most of the genetic picture is still unknown.

A consumer risk report cannot tell you whether you will get it. Most people with a close relative who has bipolar disorder never develop it themselves. The steps that help are a written family history, knowing early warning signs, and staying on any treatment a clinician has prescribed. If you or someone close to you is in crisis, call or text 988 in the US or 9-8-8 in Canada.

What you’ll learn

• Why there is no single “bipolar gene,” and what the 2025 study actually found
• How to size a high “heritability” number against the real chance of getting ill
• What a consumer risk report is, what it is not, and who can explain it
• What US and Canadian law does, and does not, protect when you share family history

There is no “bipolar gene”: what a 158,036-case genome scan actually found

Many people picture one gene that switches the condition on. That picture is wrong for bipolar disorder. A useful comparison is height. Height runs in families, but no single “tall gene” exists. Thousands of small genetic nudges add up instead. Bipolar disorder works in a similar way.

The clearest evidence comes from a large study published in Nature in January 2025. Researchers pooled genetic data from people of European, East Asian, African American and Latino ancestry. They compared people with bipolar disorder to people without it. The study found 298 places in the genome linked to the condition. Scientists call these places “loci” (fixed spots on the DNA map).

What the 2025 study measured	Result
People with bipolar disorder	158,036
Comparison group without it	About 2.8 million
Genetic sites (loci) found	298, about four times more than before
Sites linked to one ancestry only	1, in the East Asian group
Genes ranked as most likely involved	36
Brain cell types pointed to	GABAergic interneurons (cells that calm brain signals) and medium spiny neurons (cells tied to reward and motivation)

Source: O’Connell et al., Nature 2025. A 2021 study of 41,917 cases found 64 sites, so the count has grown fast.

The study added one more detail. The 36 top genes also carried rare, damaging changes more often in people with the condition. In plain words, common and rare genetic signals point at the same biology. They do not describe two separate diseases.

Earlier work named a few genes again and again. A 2022 review listed five that studies have repeatedly confirmed:

Gene	What it helps do	What it does not mean
CACNA1C	Makes part of a calcium channel, a gate that helps nerve cells send electrical signals	Common versions are small and widespread. They are not a diagnosis.
ANK3	Helps organize the spot where a nerve cell decides to fire	It is not “the” bipolar gene.
SYNE1, ODZ4, TRANK1	Other replicated candidates	None works alone.

One caution about CACNA1C is worth knowing. Rare, very different changes in that gene cause Timothy syndrome. That is a separate single-gene condition that mainly affects the heart. The common versions tied to bipolar disorder are not the same thing.

All the known variants together explain only a small share of differences between people, about 4.7%. That is why the inheritance pattern is called “polygenic” (shaped by many genes, each with a tiny effect). There is no 50-50 coin flip for each child. There is no “carrier” status. No single result causes the condition. Even the 23andMe report uses more than 16,000 variants, which shows that no single variant does the work.

If a report or a relative’s diagnosis worries you, a primary care clinician or a certified genetic counselor can walk you through it.

Section recap: Bipolar disorder is shaped by hundreds of genetic sites, each with a tiny effect. No one gene causes it, and no single result can diagnose it.

60-80 percent heritable and still not predictable: how to size “increased likelihood” against a 4.4 percent baseline

This section holds two facts that seem to clash. Both are true.

The first fact is that bipolar disorder is strongly heritable. The 2025 Nature paper puts heritability at 60-80%. Other study designs give nearby numbers. A Swedish study of family registers found 59%. A UK twin study found 85%.

The second fact is in the same Nature paper. Most of the genes behind the condition are still unknown.

So what does “heritability” mean? It is a population number. It describes how much of the difference between people tracks genetic differences. It is not your personal chance of getting ill. A heritability of 70% does not mean a 70% risk for anyone.

Now look at the real baseline. These are US figures from the National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH). They come from the National Comorbidity Survey Replication, done in 2001-2003.

Group	How common	Out of 100 people
US adults, at some point in life	4.4%	About 4 out of 100
US adults, in the past year	2.8%	About 3 out of 100
Past-year cases with serious impairment	82.9%	About 83 out of 100 cases
US teens aged 13-18, at some point	2.9%	About 3 out of 100

Source: NIMH statistics. Teen figures come from the survey’s adolescent supplement.

Put the other way, about 96 out of 100 US adults never have bipolar disorder.

What about family members? A Swedish study tracked about 9 million people. Full siblings of a person with bipolar disorder were 7.9 times more likely to have it than the general population.

That sounds alarming, but a relative number hides the real scale. That study measured hospital diagnoses in Sweden. Its baseline is not the same as the US figure above, so multiplying the two would give a false number. No source in this review gives a verified bipolar-only number out of 100 for siblings or children.

What is verified is this. Most people who have a close relative with bipolar disorder will not develop it.

A separate review pooled 33 family studies. Children of a parent with schizophrenia, bipolar disorder or major depression were tracked into adulthood. About 32 out of 100 developed a serious mental illness, including depression. That figure mixes three parent diagnoses and counts depression too. It is not a bipolar-only risk.

A polygenic risk score (a number that adds up many small genetic effects) places you on a bell curve. Most people land near the middle. The score has no line that means “sick” or “safe.” Two people in the same group can have very different lives. The score shows a link, not a cause. It will always be a probability, not a certainty.

Polygenic risk is not deterministic. A high score does not mean you will get bipolar disorder. A low score does not mean you are protected. To talk through what your own number means, bring it to a clinician or a certified genetic counselor.

Section recap: Bipolar disorder is 60-80% heritable across a population, but that is not anyone’s personal risk. About 4 out of 100 US adults ever have it, and most relatives of affected people never do.

What you can actually be tested for, and what no test currently offers

People often mix up three kinds of testing. They answer very different questions.

1. Consumer (direct-to-consumer) reports. 23andMe lists “Bipolar Disorder” among its polygenic reports. It draws on more than 16,000 variants. The company lists East/Southeast Asian, European, Hispanic/Latino and Sub-Saharan African/African American groups as relevant. This report sits in a group the company calls “Powered by 23andMe Research.” That group is separate from its reports that meet FDA requirements. The company also says these reports are not meant for medical decisions.

The FDA did authorize some 23andMe health reports in April 2017. That decision covered 10 conditions. None was a psychiatric condition, and bipolar disorder was not on the list. So the bipolar report is a research-based risk estimate. It is not an FDA-authorized diagnostic test.

2. Clinical genetic testing. No genetic test can diagnose, rule out or predict bipolar disorder. There are no clinical practice guidelines for using genetic testing in this condition. A clinician may order broader DNA sequencing only if they suspect a different, distinct genetic syndrome. Mood symptoms alone are not a reason for it.

3. Pharmacogenomic panels. These tests look at how your body processes certain medicines. They do not measure your risk of any illness.

A 2018 review in the American Journal of Psychiatry found too little data to support their wide use in practice. It noted they may help in some cases, such as predicting side effects. Whether to use one is a decision for the prescriber.

Test type	Question it answers	Can it diagnose bipolar disorder?
Consumer polygenic report	Where does a person sit on a population bell curve?	No
Clinical sequencing	Is there a separate genetic syndrome?	No
Pharmacogenomic panel	How might the body handle a drug?	No
Clinical assessment	Do symptoms over time fit a diagnosis?	Yes, this is how diagnosis is made

On cost and coverage, check your own health plan before ordering anything. Under the Affordable Care Act (ACA), insurers cannot refuse health coverage because of a pre-existing condition.

Genetic counseling is not the same as genetic testing. A genetic counselor explains risk, corrects myths and helps families talk. Research suggests this kind of counseling can leave people feeling more empowered. You can search for a certified genetic counselor in the NSGC Find a Genetic Counselor directory. It lists over 3,300 counselors in the US and Canada. It is a member list, not a referral service.

The single most useful step costs nothing. Write down a three-generation family history. Include who had mood problems, at what age, and what helped.

Section recap: No test can diagnose bipolar disorder. A consumer report is a research estimate, while a written family history is part of how a clinician makes a diagnosis.

Reading the result: risk estimate, not diagnosis, and the ancestry caveat nobody prints

Genetic results come in three broad types. Knowing which one you hold changes everything.

Result type	What it means	Should it drive action?
Diagnostic result	A harmful change in one gene that explains a condition	Yes, with a specialist
Risk estimate	A score that shifts a probability a little	No, discuss it first
Variant of uncertain significance	A change whose meaning is not yet known	No

A bipolar polygenic report is a risk estimate. It is the middle row.

Diagnosis happens in a different way. A clinician uses the DSM-5-TR, the current manual of psychiatric diagnoses from the American Psychiatric Association. The clinician looks at the severity, length and frequency of symptoms over a lifetime, plus family history. Bipolar I involves manic episodes that last at least 7 days, or that are severe enough to need hospital care. Bipolar II involves depressive episodes and milder “hypomanic” episodes. Hypomania is a milder form of mania. That split is made in an interview, not from a DNA sample.

The 2025 study also found that the genetic pattern differed between bipolar I and bipolar II. It also differed by how patients were recruited: through clinics, community samples or self-report. That is one more reason to treat any single score with humility.

There is another reason. A large 2026 Nature study looked at 14 psychiatric conditions together. For schizophrenia and bipolar disorder, most of the genetic signal was shared. So a bipolar score partly reflects risk that overlaps with other conditions. It cannot name which condition, if any, a person might develop.

Then there is ancestry. Most genetic studies so far have focused on people of European ancestry. A 2019 study found that risk scores were several times more accurate for people of European ancestry than for other groups. The 2025 bipolar study was built across several ancestries, which helps. Still, how well any score works depends on how well your ancestry was represented in the research.

Think of a weather forecast built mainly from one city’s data. It may be accurate there and much less useful elsewhere.

Practical advice is simple. Print the report and take it to a clinician or a certified genetic counselor. Do not let a low score talk you out of seeking help. Do not let a high score convince you something is wrong.

Section recap: A bipolar report is a risk estimate, not a diagnosis. Diagnosis is clinical, and score accuracy depends on ancestry.

The non-negotiable safety section: never change medication because of a genetic result

This is the most important rule in the article. No genetic result, high or low, is a reason to start, stop, reduce, skip or delay psychiatric medication. NIMH advises people to avoid stopping medication without talking to their health care provider first.

Why does staying on treatment matter so much? A 2021 review pooled 22 placebo-controlled trials with 5,462 people. All had stable bipolar disorder. Some stayed on their medicine and others stopped.

Over 6 months, staying on treatment lowered the chance of a new mood episode by about 39%. Put another way, for every 5 people who stayed on treatment, about 1 fewer had a new episode. That is roughly 20 out of 100. The benefit lasted for up to 24 months.

The same review found that about 47 out of 100 people who stopped had no new episode in 6 months. That is a group average from trials. No one can know in advance who would be in that group. It is not a reason for anyone to try stopping.

A 2013 review of 48 trials looked at lithium, one long-used medicine for mood disorders. Compared with placebo, lithium was linked to fewer deaths by suicide. The authors suggest this may work partly by preventing relapse. This is population-level evidence. It is not advice to request or change any medicine.

The CANMAT/ISBD 2018 guideline is a joint Canadian and international guideline for bipolar care. It says medicines that work in an acute episode should generally be continued for maintenance, with some exceptions.

Watch for changes in behavior instead of a score. These are signs to raise with a clinician. They are not a self-test, and only a clinician can diagnose.

Possible signs of a manic or hypomanic episode:

• Much less need for sleep, without feeling tired
• Racing thoughts or very fast talking
• Feeling jumpy, wired or unusually important
• Unusual spending or risky pleasure-seeking

Possible signs of a depressive episode:

• Feeling hopeless or worthless
• Thinking about death or suicide

Where to turn:

• For symptoms or medication questions: a psychiatrist or primary care clinician.
• For questions about a genetic report: a certified genetic counselor, found through the NSGC directory.
• For a crisis or thoughts of suicide in the US: call or text 988, or chat at 988lifeline.org. The 988 Lifeline has run since July 2022. It is free, confidential and open 24/7.
• In Canada: call or text 9-8-8, in English or French, 24/7.
• If someone is in immediate danger: call 911 (US) or 9-1-1 (Canada) right away.

Guidance on talking about suicide asks for clear, calm words and a route to help every time. Saving the number in your phone today means it is there when it is needed.

Section recap: Never change medication because of a genetic result. Watch behavior, keep the crisis numbers saved, and talk to a clinician about any concern.

What treatment actually looks like in 2026, and the one prescribing trap families should know about

Care for bipolar disorder is led by a clinician and planned by phase. The CANMAT/ISBD guideline ranks options for three phases: acute mania, acute depression and long-term maintenance. Talk therapy, education about the condition, and steady sleep and routines often support medicine. This section describes the landscape. It is not a recommendation.

The table lists some medicines with US approval dates and Canadian market status. Dates come from FDA approval records. Canadian status comes from Health Canada’s Drug Product Database, checked in October 2026.

Medicine	FDA bipolar approval (US)	Canada status
Lithium	Approved for bipolar I mania and maintenance	Marketed
Quetiapine	Mania Jan 2004; bipolar depression Oct 2006	Marketed
Lurasidone	Bipolar I depression Jun 2013	Generic lurasidone marketed
Cariprazine	Mania or mixed episodes Sep 2015; bipolar I depression May 2019	Marketed since Jun 2022
Lumateperone	Bipolar I or II depression Dec 2021	Not confirmed in Health Canada’s database

Source: FDA approval records and Health Canada Drug Product Database. The Canadian column shows market status only. It does not show the approved uses in Canada.

The guideline also lists first-line options for acute mania and for bipolar I depression. Choices depend on the person, the phase, side effects and monitoring needs. Each medicine has its own monitoring rules. Lithium, for example, carries a boxed warning about toxicity. A boxed warning is a prominent safety warning printed on the drug label. Only a prescriber can weigh these.

Now the trap families should know. Bipolar depression is not treated like ordinary depression. NIMH warns that an antidepressant used alone, without a mood stabilizer, may trigger a manic episode or rapid cycling. Rapid cycling means frequent switches between mood episodes. That is why a family history of bipolar disorder matters at a first visit for depression.

Use this as a question for the next appointment. For example: “There is bipolar disorder in the family. Does that change the plan?” It is never a reason to question or stop a current prescription on your own.

No treatment choice today is guided by a polygenic score. Pharmacogenomic tests, where used, look at drug handling, not diagnosis.

Section recap: Treatment is planned by phase with a prescriber. Telling the clinician about family history matters most when depression is being treated.

What this means for your children and siblings, and why “cascade testing” does not apply

Some conditions are caused by one gene. In those cases, doctors offer “cascade testing.” That means testing relatives for the exact gene change already found in the family.

That approach does not apply here. Bipolar disorder has no single family variant to test for. Testing a child or sibling has no clinical role. A child’s risk score would not change their care.

So what does help? Four things.

1. A written family history. List who was affected, at what age, what the episodes looked like and what treatment helped. A one-page record like this gives a clinician the family history used in diagnosis.

Here is an example layout with sample entries:

Relative	What happened	Age it started	What helped
Sister	Hospital stay for mania	26	Long-term medicine
Mother	“Bad spells,” never diagnosed	Unknown	Unknown
Grandparents, aunts, uncles	Any mood problems or hospital stays	If known	If known

Write “unknown” where you are not sure. Gaps are normal. A clinician can still use the rest. Bring the page to the next visit for anyone in the family who is being assessed.

2. Watchful awareness, not surveillance. NIMH says symptoms most often start in late adolescence or early adulthood. Past-year rates are highest among adults aged 18-29, at 4.7%.

Among US teens aged 13-18, about 3 out of 100 have had bipolar disorder at some point. For a teenager, knowing the warning signs matters far more than any genotype. Teens are assessed by a clinician, never by a gene test.

If a teen shows a change in sleep, speech, spending or mood, book a visit with their doctor or a psychiatrist. If there is any talk of suicide, call or text 988 in the US or 9-8-8 in Canada.

3. A calm family conversation. Research shows genetic counseling for psychiatric conditions can help families feel more informed and in control. A helpful script sounds like this:

• “Mood conditions run in the family. It is worth knowing the early signs.”
• “If you ever feel very wired or very low, please tell someone. Help works.”

Avoid phrases like “You have the gene” or “You’re going to get it.” Both are false and frightening.

4. Healthy basics for everyone. Regular sleep is one of them. Going easy on alcohol and stimulants is another. If a first depressive episode appears, see a clinician who knows the family history.

A certified genetic counselor can help plan these talks. Search the NSGC directory to find one.

Section recap: Cascade testing does not apply to bipolar disorder. A written family history, knowing the signs and early help matter far more than any test.

Insurance, employment and who you tell: GINA’s real limits in the US and Canada

This is often the scariest part for families. The rules are real, but they have gaps.

In the US: GINA. The Genetic Information Nondiscrimination Act of 2008 (Public Law 110-233) protects people in two areas. It covers health insurance and employment. Both parts took effect in 2009.

GINA covers	GINA does not cover
Health insurers using genetic information	Life insurance
Employers with 15 or more workers	Disability insurance
	Long-term care insurance
	Employers with fewer than 15 workers

Source: NHGRI and EEOC. Some states add extra protections.

Here is a detail most articles miss. Under GINA, “genetic information” includes family medical history. So a sister’s bipolar diagnosis, or a mother’s history, counts as genetic information. GINA bars covered health insurers and employers from using it.

Your own diagnosis works differently. A diagnosis or prescription in your own record is health information, not genetic information. For health coverage, the ACA rule on pre-existing conditions is what protects you. GINA’s gaps still apply, so life and disability insurers fall outside it.

In Canada: the Genetic Non-Discrimination Act. This federal law received assent on May 4, 2017. It bars anyone from requiring a genetic test, or its results, as a condition of goods, services or a contract. It also bars using or sharing test results without written consent.

Health care providers treating you, and researchers with their participants, are exempt. The Supreme Court of Canada upheld the law on July 10, 2020. The Court’s summary gives an example: insurers could not make people get tested to get life insurance.

The Canadian law covers genetic tests and their results. Its text does not mention family medical history. Questions about family history on an application are a separate issue. Ask a genetic counselor or an insurance lawyer about them.

Who to tell. Treat sharing as a choice, not a duty.

• A treating clinician needs the family history to give good care.
• Close relatives may benefit from knowing the warning signs.
• Applications and forms are where sharing cannot be undone. Pause before answering.

Stigma around mental illness is real. Choosing carefully who to tell is reasonable, not shameful. For insurance questions, a genetic counselor or an attorney can help before you sign anything.

Section recap: GINA protects health insurance and larger employers, but not life, disability or long-term care insurance. Canada’s law bars forced genetic tests and works differently.

Frequently asked questions

Does an “increased likelihood” report mean bipolar disorder will develop?

Not necessarily. Polygenic risk is not deterministic. The report ranks you on a population bell curve. About 4 out of 100 US adults ever have bipolar disorder. Most people with a close affected relative never develop it. A clinician or certified genetic counselor can explain your result.

Will children in the family inherit bipolar disorder?

There is no single variant to pass on and no 50-50 coin flip. Children of affected parents do have higher risk than average. Still, many never develop any mood condition. The most useful steps are a written family history, knowing early signs and a route to a clinician.

Will a result affect health or life insurance?

In the US, GINA bars health insurers from using genetic information, including family history. GINA does not cover life, disability or long-term care insurance. In Canada, no one can require a genetic test or its results for a contract. Ask a genetic counselor or an attorney before you fill in any application.

Can an employer find out?

In the US, employers with 15 or more workers cannot use genetic information, including family history, in job decisions. Smaller employers are not covered by GINA. In Canada, no one can require you to share genetic test results.

Is a second opinion a good idea?

Yes, a second opinion is reasonable for a new diagnosis or a major treatment change. Do not stop or change any medicine while waiting. For questions about a genetic report, a certified genetic counselor is the right specialist. In a crisis, call or text 988 in the US or 9-8-8 in Canada.

Summary

Bipolar disorder is strongly heritable, at 60-80% across a population. The 2025 Nature study found 298 genetic sites, and none of them alone causes the condition. Most of the genetic picture is still unknown.

A consumer report is a research estimate, not a diagnosis. It cannot predict one person’s future. About 4 out of 100 US adults ever have bipolar disorder. Most relatives of affected people never do.

The things that help are practical. Never change medication because of a genetic result. Instead, prepare for the next appointment with four simple items:

• A written family history. Cover three generations, with ages of onset and what helped.
• A short list of warning signs. Note changes in sleep, speech, spending and mood, with dates.
• One clear question. For example: “Given the family history, which signs matter most?”
• The crisis number, saved. Store 988 (US) or 9-8-8 (Canada) in your phone today.

None of these items needs a test. All of them help a clinician help your family. If a consumer report is part of the story, print it and bring it along. A certified genetic counselor can explain what it does and does not mean.

Genetics now explains a lot about how bipolar disorder works in a population. It still says very little about any one person’s future. Recognition, early help and steady treatment are what families can act on.

For more on related topics, see the Neurogenetic Diseases category.

This article is for educational purposes only. It is not a substitute for advice from a licensed physician, board-certified medical geneticist, or board-certified genetic counselor. For any decisions about testing, treatment, or care, consult a qualified clinician. In emergencies, call 911. For a mental health crisis or thoughts of suicide, call or text 988 in the US or 9-8-8 in Canada.

References

1. O’Connell KS, Koromina M, van der Veen T, et al. Genomics yields biological and phenotypic insights into bipolar disorder. Nature. 2025;639(8056):968-975. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39843750/
2. Mullins N, Forstner AJ, O’Connell KS, et al. Genome-wide association study of more than 40,000 bipolar disorder cases provides new insights into the underlying biology. Nat Genet. 2021;53(6):817-829. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34002096/
3. Oraki Kohshour M, Papiol S, Ching CRK, Schulze TG. Genomic and neuroimaging approaches to bipolar disorder. BJPsych Open. 2022;8(2):e36. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35101157/
4. MedlinePlus Genetics, U.S. National Library of Medicine. Bipolar disorder; CACNA1C gene. NCBI Gene: ANK3 (Gene ID 288). Accessed 2026-10-02. https://medlineplus.gov/genetics/condition/bipolar-disorder/
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6. Lichtenstein P, Yip BH, Björk C, et al. Common genetic determinants of schizophrenia and bipolar disorder in Swedish families: a population-based study. Lancet. 2009;373(9659):234-239. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19150704/
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13. Yatham LN, Kennedy SH, Parikh SV, et al. Canadian Network for Mood and Anxiety Treatments (CANMAT) and International Society for Bipolar Disorders (ISBD) 2018 guidelines for the management of patients with bipolar disorder. Bipolar Disord. 2018;20(2):97-170. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29536616/
14. Kishi T, Matsuda Y, Sakuma K, et al. Recurrence rates in stable bipolar disorder patients after drug discontinuation v. drug maintenance: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Psychol Med. 2021;51(15):2721-2729. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33046156/
15. Cipriani A, Hawton K, Stockton S, Geddes JR. Lithium in the prevention of suicide in mood disorders: updated systematic review and meta-analysis. BMJ. 2013;346:f3646. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23814104/
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18. U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Drugs@FDA approval letters (NDA 020639, 200603, 204370, 209500) and lithium labeling; Health Canada Drug Product Database. Accessed 2026-10-02. https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/cder/daf/
19. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. De Novo DEN160026 Decision Summary: 23andMe Personal Genome Service Genetic Health Risk Test. 2017. https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/cdrh_docs/reviews/DEN160026.pdf
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21. National Human Genome Research Institute. Genetic Discrimination; U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission. Genetic Information Discrimination; Genetic Information Nondiscrimination Act of 2008, Pub. L. 110-233. Accessed 2026-10-02. https://www.genome.gov/about-genomics/policy-issues/Genetic-Discrimination
22. Genetic Non-Discrimination Act, S.C. 2017, c. 3; Reference re Genetic Non-Discrimination Act, 2020 SCC 17. Accessed 2026-10-02. https://laws-lois.justice.gc.ca/eng/acts/G-2.5/FullText.html
23. 988 Suicide & Crisis Lifeline; 9-8-8 Suicide Crisis Helpline (Public Health Agency of Canada). Accessed 2026-10-02. https://988lifeline.org/about/
24. 9-8-8 Suicide Crisis Helpline. Suicide-safe language; SAVE. Recommendations for Reporting on Suicide. Accessed 2026-10-02. https://988.ca/understanding-suicide/suicide-safe-language
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Last updated: 2026-10-02

Author: genelumen editorial team. This article aggregates 26 sources from peer-reviewed medical literature and public health agencies (tier 1 = 16 / tier 2 = 9 / tier 4 = 1).

• Public agencies: NIMH, NHGRI, the National Library of Medicine, the FDA, the EEOC and Health Canada’s Drug Product Database
• Law and guidelines: Canada’s Genetic Non-Discrimination Act and the related Supreme Court reference, and the CANMAT/ISBD 2018 guideline
• Research: PubMed-indexed publications

This article is for educational purposes only and is not a substitute for medical advice from a licensed physician, board-certified medical geneticist, or board-certified genetic counselor. In emergencies, call 911 (US/Canada) or 119 (Japan).

Related: Neurogenetic Diseases category

🇯🇵 For readers in Japan — a separate Japanese edition written for Japan’s healthcare system (not a translation): https://genelumen.com/ja/ja-neurogenetic/bipolar-disorder-polygenic-risk-cacna1c-jp